Features of Pauses Produced by English Majors at Different Oral Proficiency Levels不同口语水平的英语专业学习者的停顿特征研究文献综述

1. Introduction

1.1 Research background

Language, an irreplaceable tool in daily lives, plays an intrinsic role in communication. With the increasingly faster pace of the whole society, English is becoming more and more omnipresent no matter where we are and what we are doing, ranging from trawling information online to cross-cultural communication. However, for some EFL learners, how to speak English fluently becomes a conundrum. In China, nowadays there still exist mountains of questions getting students, teachers and researchers anxious and worried. For oral English, empirical studies mainly concern oral abilities, including accuracy, fluency and complexity, and theorical studies largely comprises oral ability developments patterns that form the potent basis for fluency research (Wang Zhou, 2004). Thus, China has seen great strides in fluency investigation. When measuring fluency, researchers have to tackle performance variables or temporal variables (Zhang Wu, 2001). And empirical studies on measuring fluency mainly adopt temporal variables, such as speech rate, mean length of runs, phonation/time ratio, articulation rate, frequencies and lengths of pauses (Towell, 1996; Zhang, 1999b; Zhang Wu, 2001; Yang Mu, 2011b). Pause, an important temporal variable because all the calculations of temporal variables pivot on the definition of pause (Zhang Wu, 2001), is becoming more and more noticeable (Yang Mu, 2011a). For Chinese EFL learners, two reasons of disfluency in language production are alternate occurrence of unfilled pause and filled pause, and superfluous use of unfilled pause and non-lexical fillers (Yang Mu, 2011b). A large wide of students contend that grammar and vocabulary contribute to success in speech accuracy and complexity. However, pause, a problem in their speech production, is often neglected. Under this condition, theorical and empirical studies on pause is essential for research on learning and teaching.

1.2 Research purposes

With the birth of prosody research, intonation has been unearthed for hundreds of years. However, in China, there are not abundant articles or books about the study based on the correlation between Pause and Intonational Phrases (IP). Take Chinese TEM-4 Oral Test as an instance. Intonation is one of the factors listed in the holistic scoring criteria. However, an objective and detailed computerized intonation analysis provides a basis for scoring. As the study depicts, We are left without a clear notion of what linguistic features actually correspond to these general characteristics (Wennerstrom, 2000: 103), and hence more precise and quantitative research needs to be designed and carried out. This paper tries to analyze the pitch levels of intonation before or after speakers pauses, as pause is the criterion in the demarcation of intonation. At the same time, tonality, chunking, or division in IPs (Wells, 2006), helps us signal the structure of IPs and allows the author break the material up into IPs.

1.3 Organization of the study

This paper consists of five chapters.

Chapter One, the present chapter, functions as a guide for the whole paper. Based on respective parts: research background, research purposes and organization of the study, chapter one shows the current situation in English oral tests and unveil the aims of this paper.

Chapter Two offers Pause, definition of Intonation and development of relevant research. After the definition, systems and functions of EI, previous studies are provided to enrich this paper.

Chapter Three is research methodology as a whole, there research questions, participants, tools and measurements will be displayed.

Chapter Four opens the gate of results and discussion.

Chapter Five concludes the preceding analysis. It comprises of major findings, implications, limitations of this study and suggestions for future research.

2. Literature review

2.1Pause

Yang and Mu (2011a) mention that there is no accurate definition about pause and most researchers define it by pause time. By Raupach (1980), pause is the breaks within one sentence or between sentences that span 0.3 seconds or longer. And Zhang Wu (2001) adopt this method as the demarcation of pause. Lennon (1990, 405) groups pause into the filled and unfilled pauses. Cruttenden (1997) also notes that pause, unfilled pause and filled pause included, is the criterion when we distinguish the demarcation of intonation-phrases (IP). This kind of classification of pause routinely draws the attention of Chinese research in language production (Yang Mu, 2011a). At the same time, there exist too many pauses in English majors IP production; incorrect IP production can shift the focus of information, making expression monotonous (Yang, 2014). People need to make tonal phrasing (grouping) and breath, in which circumstance pause is inevitable. Thus, pause is of essence in oral language production.

Cruttenden (1997) concludes that pauses take place at three positions: on the boundary of main utterance constituents, before a high lexical word and after the first word in IP. The first sort can be taken advantage to mark the demarcation of EI and others are considered hesitancy. Yang Mu (2011a) also summarize that the false use of intonation boundaries is one of the reasons of pauses. Thus, due to marking pauses, the author can discover and more easily investigate EI.

2.2 English Intonation and relevant research

2.2.1 Definition of English Intonation

With regard to English Intonation (EI) s definition, there is no sole accurate explanation. Wennerstrom (2000) proposes that intonation is an integral component in judging speech fluency and prefers to put the use of pitch on lexical items in the list of English fluency. Intonation also involves the occurrence of recurring pitch patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings (Cruttenden, 1997: 7). Wells (2006) believes that intonation is the pitchs ups and downs and the melody in language speaking. EI is also the pitch patterns of oral English (OConnor, 1973: 1) and refers to the use of suprasegmental phonetic features (Ladd, 2008: 4). Though there exist myriads of explanations of EI, the central concerns are pitch patterns and tunes of oral English as well as its musical features (OConnor, 1973: 1). The ups and downs of speech production and musical notes of voice is essential when speaking English. When it comes to prosodic features of intonation, pitch, as the most centrally involved variation (Cruttenden, 1997: 3), needs us to put it into research to a considerable extent. At the same time, the culmination points in pitch enable listeners to gain the most important information (Halliday et al., 2015).

2.2.2 Systems of English Intonation

When it comes to the systems of EI, in the realm of information, The Three Ts Theory cannot be neglected. Halliday (2015) gives a trio system: tonality, tonicity and tone. They are: how to break the material up into chunks, what is to be accented, and what tones are to be used (Wells. 2006). These systems are deemed three Ts theory by Wells (2006). It buttresses this paper and offers the theorical basis.

In the field of theoretical and applied linguistics, when researchers attempt to analyze the discourse and utterance, those tiny sentences need to be grouped into IPs. There is usually one second to two seconds to span each chunk. Apart from IP, there also exist grammatical boundaries to help people analyze syntactically. This process is called tonality (Wells, 2006: 6-7).

After breaking the whole conversation into IPs or chunks, the next step is to operate more detailed and complex analysis in each of its which usually are constituted by pre-head, head, nucleus and tail. Nucleus, lying at the end, is usually the last pitch accent involving tonal movement and always plays the most important role in conveying intonational meanings (Cruttenden, 1997: 49). Routinely there are one or two stressed syllables in each IP and the second one counted from the end is head. Pre-head is before the head and tail is located after the nucleus. This process is called tonicity (Wells, 2006: 7-9).

As the author has mentioned, the most principal correlation with intonation is pitch. Pitch, as a largely used prosodic feature, are acoustically reflected in fundamental frequency (the vibration rate of vocal folds in the larynx) which is measured in Hz. Moreover, to be practical, pitch and fundamental frequency is equated (Cruttenden, 1997: 2-4). Descriptions of fundamental frequency is depicted as its contours which are plots of frequency against time. All of these are more and more being put into great attention with the development of computational linguistic analysis. Pitch movements in the nucleus are able to shape the meanings of IPs syntactically and attitudinally according to various sentence types and pitch patterns. This process is called tone (Wells, 2006: 9-10).

2.2.3 Functions of English Intonation

With regard to the functions, although there are different taxonomies, Chun dissects it and groups into 4 dominant categories: grammatical function, attitudinal function, discourse function and sociolinguistic function (Chun, 2002: 47-67).

Grammatical function means that listeners can make clear of sentence types (statement, exclamation, command, question and so on) by distinguishing the final pitch accent and contours in one IP. Written English can be parted into sentences and clauses by punctuation while oral Englishs demarcations are signaled by intonation. This function is realized by tonality and tone.

Attitudinal function makes people aware of the emotion conveyed or hidden in speech (anger, sadness, exhilaration) by the signals of pitch range and contours. This function is realized by tone.

Discourse function refers to the textual meanings in conversation. Grammatical function helps researchers dissect the materials from the speaker or the listener and Discourse function is used as a tool to analyze the conversation between the speaker and the listener. The latter one tells individuals when to start or end discourse.

Sociolinguistic function aims to help researchers investigate the interactive part of intonation rather than just words and utterances.

2.2.4 Previous empirical studies on English Intonation

Though intonation has been unearthed for a long time, empirical studies on English intonation produced by learners whose mother tongue is Chinese is rare (Chen, 2010). Amid previous studies, as Chen (2010) points out, two groups can be parted: one is to draw a comparison between Chinese students performance and native speakers, aiming to discover problems in intonation systems, and the other is to directly show the characteristics and errors of Chinese learners spoken English.

In the first group, Chen (2006) compares oral English samples differences between 45 learners whose mother tongue is Mandarin Chinese and 8 British college students. On this basis, Chen summarizes some problems of intonational patterns usage. Huang (2008) analyzes Chinese learners intonation characteristics through an English declarative question You mean you are not confident that you can pass them, and compare materials belonging to 30 Chinese English majors and 5 English native speakers.

In the second group, Pan (1994) notes that educators who teach oral English find there exist problems in intonation when students speak English and that students cannot fully comprehend fundamental skills of EI. Hu (2012: 10) also summarizes distinct problems that Chines researchers find on Chinese EFL learners oral production, like the inability to select appropriate tone patterns, destitute of variation in EIs ups and downs and mechanically usage amid sentences. Bu (2016) concludes that the crux of lack of English fluency is intonation acquisition for Chinese learners. And Bu analyzes materials of 30 Chinese college students from tonality, tonicity and tone, i.e. grouping of intonation-phrases, placement of nucleus, stress of syllables and patterns of intonation.

Studies shows students problems in the realm of intonation, ranging from monotonous expression to solely or mistakenly usage of pitch patterns (Chen, 2002; Hong, 2012; Pan, 1994). Reasons can be parted into two dimensions (Pan, 1994). For one, students subjectively harbor that tone and tune do not impair abilities to speak fluently and that written examination is prioritized amid a large pool of examinations. For another, it is an uphill struggle for students to study and practice intonation which is embedded into a deeply subconscious level, thus allowing them opportunities to give up and circumvent those seemingly insurmountable and formidable obstacles.

Research on pause can be divided into characteristics (pause rates, positions, patterns) and functions (physiological, intercourse, intonational and planning function) (Yang Mu, 2011a). There exists a large pool of studies on pause. However, correlation of pause and intonation is scarce. Cruttenden (1997) concludes that pause can signal the demarcation of IP, and Wennerstrom (2000) reveal that inappropriate usage of intonation is one of reasons why pause can be generated. Yang Mu (2011a) summarize that pause in IP is the future of pause research. Thus, correlation of pause and intonation is a must. As pause is the outward criteria of EI, this paper attempts to investigate the intonation around pause produced by English majors in a test, aiming to offer more information to the hall of academia.

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